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Ludomir Domański
Goldbeaters. The history of little-known craft, as it developed in Poland from 1393 to 1551, based on, among others, the texts on stealing gold, which was purchased in order to gilding sculpture in Wit Stwosz altar in Kraków.
It is necessary to obtain Greek parchment, which is made of cotton fibber, and rub into it, on both sides, red pigment of dry ochre, burnt and ground in a fine manner. It is necessary to smooth it with the tooth of beaver, bear or wild boar, until it is given shiny appearance. As the result of rubbing, the pigment should adhere by itself. The parchment can be cut to pieces, four fingers by four fingers, even dimension. Calf parchment is used to make a bag, strong and of appropriate size, so it becomes a container for many pieces of red-coloured parchment. Pure gold is very carefully beaten with a hammer on a smooth anvil. There may be no cracks in gold. Then, it is cut to square pieces, two by two fingers wide. One piece of gold is placed on one piece of red-coloured parchment, and then, both parchment and gold, together, are placed in a bag. Other pieces of gold, together with parchment, are also stored in the bag. Gold must always be in the middle of parchment. With a bras hammer, which is narrow at its handle and wide at its head, a goldbeater beats the bag (with gold and parchment in it), which should be placed on a big and smooth stone. Strokes should be strong but not violent. It is necessary to often check the thickness of gold pieces between the pieces of parchment. If gold sticks out of the bag, it should be cut with small and fine scissors, which were designed just for that purpose. That is the way of producing gold leaves of desired thickness. In order to make an aureole around a saint s head, and in order to decorate cloths, and other details (in pictures and sculpture), one can cut gold leaf according to his needs * Teofil Presbiter Diverssarium Artium Schedula , p. 18.
Theophil the Monk wrote about the method of producing gold leaf in the 12th century. Today, we can say that the method has been known for fifty centuries. The technology was developed in India, and it spread to Egypt, Greece, and Rome. Gold can easily be forged, and that quality makes it popular a material. Craftsmen and artists often use gold leaf to produce different effects in sculpting and painting. Twenty five hundred years before Christ, goldbeaters were able to obtain 0,001 mm thick gold leaves. They wouldn t be able to do it, if they couldn t obtain good quality parchment made of animal membrane and/or paper. The method of producing gold leaf wasn t well known in ancient Europe, and even in the Middle Ages. It was a unique craft, practiced in only a few cities in Europe. High price of gold contributed to the popularisation of gold beating technology. Objects that looked like gold were on demand. Contemporary goldbeating methods are even more precise, and manufacturers can produce leaves 0,00011 mm thick (*4. When 0,00011 mm thick and 64 square cm leaves are used, 1,93 grams of gold is needed to cover the surface of one square metre, while loss is 10%). Ancient leaves were ten times thicker, therefore goldbeaters needed about 20 grams of gold to produce leaves, which would cover one square metre of surface. When, in the tombs of pharaohs, they stored many kilograms of gold. The value of gold wasn t that important. Nevertheless, the technique of gold beating always was important. Objects covered with gold sheets, which were too thick, their surface wasn t even and didn t look good. It is obvious that such objects were made of different material and only covered with gold. Thick leaves don t easily adhere to complicated ornaments. Also, too thick leaves don t adhere to parchment, and they often fall off the pages of gold books. Thin leaves are much more appropriate a material both for decorative painting (such as in miniatures, and in manuscripts), and sculpture. They adhere to objects and they can easily be polished. Thin gold leaves look like solid gold. Ancient artists gilded different elements in pictures, sculpture, buildings, and other objects. Gold and silver leaves were used as gilding material in both the houses of worship and secular buildings. Gold was associated with heavenly light and solar cult. It was used to add glitter to objects and raise their value. In Christian tradition, gold was considered as precious material, because of its symbolic meaning. Artists and craftsmen, who worked for the church, because it was considered as interesting material, often used it. In the regions where gold beating technology was not developed, gold leaf was imported from the centres. Artists in Byzantium, Eastern and Western Europe, used gold leaf to produce mosaics and other pictures. Gold and silver leafing was used in nimbi, icons, miniature paintings, picture frames, and different elements in ornaments. Also, gold and silver leaves were used for painting and writing techniques, such as chrysography and argyrography. The process was described in the Theban Papyri, which is the oldest existing crafts formulary (written in the 2nd century). It is possible to use gold chips to produce gold powder, but it is much easier to use gold leaves. When ground, gold adheres to the walls of vessel, and to other tools; therefore, the process is considered as strenuous and inefficient.
There is yet another gilding technique, which has been used for many centuries. Gold and mercury solution can be heated up and mercury evaporates in high temperature. The method can only be used to cover with gold metal, and, rarely, stone objects. The film is durable and objects can be used for different purposes. The method, however, isn t the subject of this paper.
Artists who decorated churches and religious books used gold and silver leaf. Goldbeating wasn t popular, and was considered as important craft. It isn t clear whether gold used in the 13th century tympanum of the Cistercian Sisters Monastery in Trzebnica (6), and in the earliest Polish panel pictures was produced in one of the Polish monasteries. Gold leaves might have been imported from Western Europe or from Ruthenia, where gold beating technology developed in direct connection with the Byzantium.
The earliest evidence of gold beating in Central Europe dates from the 14th century. In 1348, St. Lucas Fraternity was established in Prague (7). Its members were different craftsmen, including goldbeaters (in Latin: auripercussores). The Wrocław Gild of Painters, Carpenters, Sculptors and Goldbeaters was established in 1386.
In Kraków, the first record, which confirmed the existence of a goldbeater (goldsloer) was written in 1393. On October 2nd, 1393, Johannes goltsloer was expelled from the city as proposed by Michael, a painter (8). Earlier, less dramatic records regarding Ian hasn t been found. A year later, on November 27, Jurge de Wijn, a goldbeater (goltsleger) received the city rights (9). It isn t clear weather he came to Kraków from Vienna that year, and replaced his expelled predecessor. It is possible, that he received city rights, and opened a workshop in 1394. There is yet another 14th century record regarding Conradus, a goldbeater (goldslaer), and it is dated from 1396 (10).
In each record, a scribe used different spelling for the word goldbeater . It suggests that the craft was relatively little known. In the 16th century documents, the word was also written in different ways, such as: goltsleger, goltslaer, goltsloer, gultsloer, goltsloher, goltschloer, goldschlaher. Gold was written as golt, gult, and beating was written as szlahen, slaen. In Polish texts, scribes used such terms as goldschlager, goldszleger, goldśleger. Those words were sill in use at the beginning of the 20th century. In newer texts, writers used a term złotarz , which appeared as the synonym of pozłotnik , pozłacarz , wyzłacarz (in Latin: deaurator, inaurator). Latin-language writers, considered a goldbeater as auripercussor , "brakteator" ( braktet means a thin gold plate), and aurifoliator . In Germany, they used the term Goldschlager . In Holland de gouldschlager . I France beater d Or . In England goldbeater . Speakers of those languages combined two words, gold , and beater , and I followed their idea.
In the Middle Ages, both in the Kingdom of Poland and in Silesia, goldbeaters only worked in Kraków and Wrocław. We don t know of any other city. In Pomerania, where many objects were gilded, they imported gold leaf from Danish and Dutch workshops. (11)
The Kraków records were described by Jan Ptasnik in Cracovia artificum . His publication is the best source of information on those records. Kraków was an exceptional city. In the 15th and the 16th centuries, when the country prospered and attracted many excellent artists, it was the capital of the Kingdom of Poland.
IN their work, they often used thin plates of gold, silver and tin. Many Polish authors consider gold beaters as gilders. It is a wrong idea. I found no evidence, that gilders used to beat gold. Gold beaters were few, and they only worked in Kraków and Wrocław. There are many records, which regard payment to painters and woodcarvers for gilding with gold and silver. Established artists often employed other painters as assistants, who did gilding and other simple work. The Dictionary of Polish Painters gives evidence of many payments for such commissioned work.
In 1466, Janek (Johannes) de Bodzanczyn de Lesczna, a painter from Kraków, was commissioned to paint cathedral organ in Kraków modo quo potest meliori diversi coloribus avro et argento (12)
In 1476, Mikołaj (Mielasz) Haberschack, a painter and woodcarver residing in Kraków, together with his brother Albert, painted and gilded a sculpted figure of Maria Magdalena in Lwów cathedral. (13)
In 1486, Adam from Lublin, an established painter working in Kraków, was several times elected as an elder in the local gild. He signed a contract to paint an altar in Olkusz. For his work as painter and gilder, he received 220 florens and 40 florens from that amount were to be given to his brother Jan, a woodcarver.
In 1494, Mikołaj (Neckloss), a painter from Poznań, worked on polychrome on figures sculpted by a stone-carver Jan of Kiczki; he painted and gilded the stone figures; the figure of St. Maria Magdalena was to be gilded. (15)
In 1510, Michał (Schwartz) of Augsburg was a painter in Gdańsk. In 1510, he signed a contract to design, sculpt and paint the main altar in the Holy Mary Church in Gdańsk; he and his assistants were to do all the woodcarving, painting and gilding jobs; he was to pay for painting and gilding jobs; the total amount to be paid to him was 7,000 grzywnas, which was the highest price ever paid (before 1510) to an artist in Europe. (16)
Painters gilded carriages and other vehicles. In 1544, Maciej Baczkowski alias Wotka, a painter from Kraków, gilded a coach, currum inauratum , for Seweryn Boner, a castellan of Bielsk. (17)
In 1530, Stanisław Szczerba painted and gilded such elements of stoves in the Wawel Castle as crowns and attics. In 1529, Błażej, and from 1529 to 1530, Hans Duerer, painted and gilded sculpted rosettes of the cassette ceiling in the Wawel Castle. (18)
In 1542, Krzysztof Kwiatkowski, a painter from Kraków, gilded ceiling rosettes in the town hall in Kraków. (19)
In 1599, Kasper Kurcz, the elder of the Kraków craftsmen gold, gilded weather-vanes and globes on the Florian Gate in Kraków. (20)
In 1551, Martinus Kazimirski, a Kraków painter, was commissioned to gilding the main altar in the cathedral for the amount of 1,000 florens. He was assisted by Stanisław. (21)
In 1518, and inventory was written for Jerzy, a Kraków painter, who was a student of Joachim Libnar. In 1520, Jerzy became the elder of the craftsmen gild. In the inventory, there were listed both finished and half-finished objects, many of them were gilded with gold and silver leaf. The inventory is almost like a photograph of his studio.
There were such objects as: six big gilded chandeliers, two not gilded, and three small crucifixes, six chandeliers, two of them gilded, and two of them gilded and four not gilded, three small and four big painted and gilded pictures, four sculpted and not gilded pictures, another one gilded with silver leaf, a box with chisels (dlots), a picture of Virgin Mary in gilded sun, tablets for the altar, a not-gilded picture of Virgin Mary, a box with paints, twenty two painted spears, fourteen not painted spears, and two shields . In 1520, the painter wounded Stanisław, also a painter, and fled the city. (22)
The best artist painters and altar-makers didn t do simple jobs, they employed assistants and students. Mikołaj Malarczyk, who worked in Kraków, painted five tablets, for which he received gold from a client. (23)
In 1558, Franciszek, a painter from Kraków, worked for Giovanni Padovano, who painted and gilded the three tablets with coats-of-arms of Poland and Zebrzydowski, the bishop. They were hanged at the Kraków cathedral. (24)
There is a unique document dated from the 15th century, which gives information on how painters were educated and continued their education. The process was different than traditional profession-acquiring by a craftsman.
In 1482, Bartłomiej of Biecz was an altarist at the Church of Our Lady in Kraków. He was commissioned to teach how to illuminate books with gold and flowers (cum auro et floribus), written by Jakub of Bystrzyca, a canonical law bachelor. In the period of few weeks, he visited Bartłomiej, whom he taught every thing needed to illuminate books , and he received three florens for his lessons.
In 1527, Jan from Racibórz, an artist and a student in Kraków, taught the art of illuminating books to Old Maciej, from the manor house in Pinczów, and an illuminator of books at the Kraków castle. He received two florens for his effort.
Many good artists had occasional financial problems, and they had to take commissions, which rather required the skills of craftsmen that artists. Specialisation was only possible, when there was competition. Painters, who worked in provincial areas, both in church and private properties, had to accept all kinds of commissions. An interesting source of information on gilding can be found in the statutory documents of artists gilds. The statutory documents written, for example, in 1573 in Wroclaw give us an idea of how such documents were written. The documents include the description of making a smooth, gilded frame. The frame was made by a candidate for a master-craftsman. (26)
On April 8, 1615, the Statute of Brześć was given to artists by Prince Jerzy Christian. It lists the dimensions and the description of an oil picture with an appropriate inscription , and it includes the demand to cleanly gild the frame . (27)
In the Statute of Przemysl, written in 1625, there is a description of an art , which candidates for masters had to submit to a commission. They had to show three pictures, including one with the scene of crucifixion, the Holy Virgin Mary, Saint John, and Saint Maria Magdalena, which was supposed to be painted in oil paints, and framed in a gilded-and-sculpted frame, the second one with Saint George on a horse, painted with watercolours, on canvas, and the third one of any person known to the masters . (28)
The two first mentioned pictures were to be painted, based on students fantasy. The requirement regarding the ability to gilding was a reminiscence of traditional panel painting, which included both pictures and frames as one piece with gilded elements. Gilding, then, was considered as one of the skills, which a master painter had to show, although, it wasn t yet a phase in preparing the background for a picture. A painter, who specialised in gilding, were considered as pozłacarz and/or wyzłacarz , pozłotnik , wyzłotnik . At that moment in history, the profession of a gilder was established in Poland. The first statutory record on the teaching how to gild, considered as a different discipline, separate from painting, dates from 1638. A boy, who would like to learn painterly skills, should study for a period of six years, and a boy, who would like to learn gilding skills, should study four years . (29)
Painters were the clients of goldbeaters. Both professional groups were connected with, and often supported each other. Painters used to give recommendations to gilders, who wanted to receive city rights. Craftsmen representing both professions were witnesses at christening ceremonies, they used sell properties to each other, and painters often owed payments to goldbeaters. There aren t many documents left, which include information on the sales of gold leaf.
In 1596, Adam, a painter from Warsaw, used to import paints and gold from Wroclaw. He bought the merchandise from Hieronim. (30) Joachim Libnav, a painter from Kraków, wrote in his last will, that he owed Clement, a goldbeater, forty groszys for a book of gold leaf ( pro libris czwiskulth ). (31)
There is a series of documents, which are connected with the theft of gold bought for Wit Swtosz altar in Kraków. From the end of the 14th century, when the first goldbeaters settled in Kraków, to the middle of the 16th century, there were twenty seven gold beaters working in Kraków. Each year, the Kraków Painters Gild elected two elders, and, often, they elected one goldbeater and one painter. From 1407 to 1426, they elected Dominicus five times, in 1430, Hanno from Swidnica, from 1441 to 1478, Bartholomeus was elected nine times, in 1482 Bartosch, in 1510 Berthold Glaver. Eight goldbeaters came from Silesia, four from Ulm, two from Florence, one from Vienna, and one from Oluenstede (Ostende ?)Others were either from Kraków, or their origin wasn t described in documents.
The most interesting documents date from the 15th century. They were published by Jan Ptasnik. They refer to stolen gold, which was purchased for the purpose of producing gold leaf needed for gilding the Miraculous Altar , sculpted and painted by Wit Swtosz.
The first record is short, and dates from August 1, 1485. Master Jan Thurzo put into custody all properties of Bernhart, a goldbeater, which were worth 140 florens (Ptaśnik, 905).
From the middle of the 15th century, floren, a red złoty, was considered as an equivalent of dukat (32), a Hungarian gulden. King Łokietek s dukat weighed 3,5 grams of 23.5 karat gold. Similar money was minted in 1501, on the coronation of Alexander Jagiellończyk (33).
On August 6, the debt was quoted as 90 Hungarian guldens, and from that date, that amount was quoted in claims and other financial documents. We can assume, that Bernhart had or obtained some money and he paid a portion of his debt (see document No. 911).
On August 6, 1495 (Ptaśnik 906), Bernhart, a goldbeater was quoted as saying, that he owed Master Jan Thurzo 90 guldens, for gold he received in the amount of 2,5 gold marks, which he was supposed to use in order to beat gold leaf needed for gilding work on grand altar; however, he couldn t do that, because he sold gold and he embezzled the fund.
A mark of gold, in Poland known as grzywna , weighed in Kraków 196 grams (34). That means, Bernhart received 490 grams of 23,5 karat gold. It is almost half a kilogram of gold, which, at that time, could be used to cover 20 to 25 square metres of surface (gold leaf was ten times thicker than contemporary leaf). (36) Artists used four by six or nine by twelve leaves. (37)
Further, Bernhart promised to return 90 guldens by Easter; he borrowed 50 guldens, including 15 guldens from Fryderyk Schilling, 15 from Master Vit, and 10 guldens from Marcin, a painter, 10 from Maciej, a gilder, and 10 from Jakub Bother, a journeyman. There is a mistake in the document, because the initially listed amount of 50 guldens, after adding amount borrowed, equals 60, and not 50 guldens.
It isn t sufficient , the judge said further, that Master Bernhart warrants with his work and cash the return of the money by Easter, as Jan Turzo demands; but, also, he agrees, that he gages his entire fortune, such as gold, silver, merchandise, tools, not excluding any things taken from him without being punished, and he can work in the church for as long as it takes him to pay his debt, and he will be considered as completely without honour, and devoid of good name if he doesn t work hard enough and/or flees from his place of residence& also, he will be curtailed of his privileges as craftsman .
Both the list of his belongings (which included only movables), and the warning of his possible fleeing Kraków, may be to Wrocław, suggest that master Bernhart came to Kraków in order to work fro Wit Stwosz, and he didn t plan permanent settlement. Even if he fled to Wrocław, his creditors had a chance to seize his property. Towards the end of 1485, Wit Stwosz indeed travelled to Wrocław, and he met with Bernhart. (38). Did he receive any money? Did he go on an honorary mission, in order to save the craftsmen good name? We don t know that. In documents, we can only read, that he visited the city .
We can read in the documents, too, that if master Bernhart returns 50 guldens on time, according to master Jan Thurzo s will, he could be extended next payment date, and return 40 guldens later; nevertheless, what master Thurzo receives, must for ever belong to himself, and there won t be risen any protest against his ownership), except tools, lewcht or leather& until the entire amount of 90 guldens is returned .
There is a mysterious word lewcht (losch, lewsch), used as part of the term describing a journeyman s profession: goldlosch mechir (goltlewschmachir), which, most likely, meant a leather, well-dried forms, used to beat gold. A word Loschblatt means blotting paper . It is the most likely interpretation of the word s meaning. The dryness of forms used in the process of gold beating was very important, because gold would adhere to a form, if the form wasn t enough dry. A journeyman prepared the forms to be used by a goldbeater, therefore, his profession was considered as a maker/preparer of goldbeating forms (see the description of the process of gold beating).
In the document written on December 31, there is the name of Krzysztof Dornhawsir, a goldbeater, who came to, or already lived in Kraków. On December 31, 1485 (according to Ptaśnik, 920), Krzysztof Dornhawsir, a goldbeater, said that master Jan Turzo, a master of grand altar project, sold him the tools for goldbeating, such as: books, forms, hammers, pliers, bellows, slats for cutting, boxes, a case, and other tools for the craft all that for the amount of 28 Hungarian guldens .
It is possible, that Bernhart wasn t able or willing to pay his debt, therefore all his tools were sold in order to pay at least a portion of his debt. The list of tools is the first such record in Polish historic documents. Also, that is the only list of tools used in the 15th century in Poland. It is an interesting document which explains certain aspects of gold beating technology. It confirms the thesis that, in the 15th century, the process of gold beating was already more advanced and similar to modern methods. It was different from the process described by Theophil the Monk in the early Middle Ages.
The books (buchir), which were listed in the document, were the paper booklets used to store thin leaves of beaten gold. The word forms (formen) refers to pieces of parchment (parchment leaves) made of ox entrains of different dimensions, which were used for beating gold. (41) Hammers (hemmir), of different weight, were used for beating gold in forms. Bellows (blisbelge) were used to kindle and keep fire burning. Craftsmen needed fire to produce gold alloys. Pliers (czngen) were made of hardwood, and were used to handling gold leaves, and to handle the pieces of gold in early phases of beating.
Cutting boards of appropriate dimensions(sneidebrettir) were used to cutting gold in small frames. Then, they were placed in booklets. Cases and boxes (castelen und almar) were used fro storage and transportation of all things.
Master Christopher promised to give by Saint Michael 28 guldens to master Thurzo, and to other masters of the church, without delay, and, if they gave him any job to do, he would give them a half of earned money to pay the debt, and he would keep the other half; if he didn t receive any commission, 28 guldens were to be paid by him by the due date; he signed the agreement and promised to lend on security all the tools and all his belongings to the masters and master Thurzo. The document doesn t say that Dornhawsir worked on the altar, and that he used to beat gold. Nevertheless, there are no other documents on the subject, therefore, we can assume that he paid his debt.
Another interesting document was written on January 7, 1486. Bernhart, a goldbeater, was again in Kraków. Most likely, he heared of the sale of his tools, and wanted to do something about it. His full name and origin were written in the document.
Bernhart Opticzer, a goldbeater from Wrocław, said, that he lent Jakub Bother, a goltlewschmachir, 25 Hungarian guldens in order to pay, on his behalf, the real debt to Jan Thurzo, the master of the construction of the big altar in Our Beloved Lady Mary church, by Saint Michael, in cash or beaten gold for the altar, without excusing himself from his own yet-unpaid debt .
Bernhart came with insufficient funds and he tried to return his debt in part in beaten gold, not in cash. The amount of 25 guldens can be considered as the money Jakub wanted other guarantors to warrant. On May 31, 1486, Wojtek Soszna (Sosna), a goldbeater (Ptaśnik 934), received city rights, and he was recommended by Laszlo, a carpenter, and Stanisław Stary, a painter, who pledged for him. His turning-up isn t directly connected with Bernhart Opticzer s affair. Nevertheless, craftsmen, who supported him, were connected with Wit Stwosz. We can, therefore, assume, tat he could be the beater of gold used for gilding the Great Altar at the Our Beloved Lady Mary church in Kraków.
Two other documents include the names of Laszlo and Łukasz Opticzer. Laszlo, a carpenter, worked with Wit Stwosz and, most likely, did the carpenter s job for the Great Altar.
On October 14, 1486 (Ptaśnik 952), Laszlo, a carpenter, lent money to Łukasz, a painter, and Łukasz paid the debt of Jakub, a Lowschmachir, to Jan Thurzo, a master of altar building, when master Thurzo returned home . The amount of 12 Hungarian guldens is the debt of Łukasz Opticzer s in Wrocław, and Jakub Bother, on behalf of Bernhart Opticzer&
We can assume, that Bernhart didn t pay his debt by Saint Michael, which was the due date (April 1486), and his endorsers had to pay it, although Jan Thurzo was not in Kraków. Laszlo, a carpenter, lent the money to Łukasz, a carpenter, lent to Łukasz, a painter, and Łukasz Opticzer from Wrocław, Bernhart s relative, endorsed the loan.
Two dayts later, Jakub Bothner had to solve his problems and paid his debt. On October 16, 1486 (Ptaśnik 953), Jakub Bothner paid his debt of 32 guldens, and relieved Long John, Andrzej Warkoczek, and Łukasz, a painter, from their pledge. Nevertheless, he didn t pay the debt of Bernhart, and his pledge still stands.
The documents regarding Bernhart, a goldbeater, include a lot of information on the craft of gold beating. We can read about Jan Thurzo, an investor, who commissioned gold leaf. Wit Stwosz was only an intermediary, or, mat be, he recommended Bernhart as a goldbeating master. Both Bernhart and Łukasz Molner, a painter, came from Wrocław. Molner probably gilded the altar. Stwosz knew Bartholomeus, an elder of the guild in Kraków. However, it was Bernhart who received the commission for beating gold. Of course, all craftsmen, who worked on the altar knew each other. Stwosz, his brother Maciej, a goldsmith, Laszlo, a carpenter, Marcin Czarny, a painter, Łukasz, also a painter, and Długi Jan, a tawer, were mentioned in documents as guarantors and lenders. When Bernhart s belongings were pawned, a long list of his tools was written. It was, most likely, the first such list ever written in Europe. While reading the documents, we can watch efficient Medieval courts at work, and we can see how they solved financial problems connected with craftsmen commissions. Also, we can look behind the scene of building the Great Altar at the Holly Virgin church in Kraków.
It wasn t the only affair involving the Stwosz family and the goldbeaters. In 1516, Matys (Matysek), a goldsmith, may be the son of Matys Boschler, a goldbeater, went to a court because Matys Matysek wounded Matys, a goldbeater. They both came to an agreement. Michel Meidel, Jobst Glacz, Stanisław, a goldsmith, and Matys Szwab (Wit s brother) were their witnesses. Matysek agreed to pay Matys, a goldbeater, 24 florens as compensation for his wounds. (42) It would be interesting to know if it weren t an aftermath of the Bernhart affair. Both Mathews weren t angry at each other for too long: soon, Matysek sold his house to Matys for 250 Hungarian guldens. (43)
Based on the analysis of the documents regarding goldbeaters, we can assume that there were various results of the Bernhart Opticzer s affair. A golbeater became an elder in the gild not earlier than 25 years after the affair was over. From 1404 to 1482, goldbeaters were gild elders 16 times, and they shared that position with other craft masters. Presumably, other craftsmen lost their confidence in goldbeaters. In 1490, five years after the affair, the city council issued a privilege to painters gild. It was broadened in 1497 and 1511. Goldbeaters were included in those privileges. (44) Their rights were confirmed by king Zygmunt August in his bill issued on the 1st of July, 1570. (p. 13)
The document includes the list of goldbeating products, such as Abszlag, Feingold, Cwiszgold, and silver leaf. Finegold is fine 23 karat gold leaf. Cwiszgold is the Medieval product which includes a gold and silver leaves, beaten together. (45) Silver leaf was the least expensive and it was most often used by gilders. They used it to imitate gold. In order to make silver leaf look like gold, they painted it with yellow and golden varnishes. (46) The term Abszlag is mysterious. It might be a half-beaten gold leaf, which was imported from Wrocław to Kraków in order to avoid the payment of taxes. A representative of Wrocław goldbeaters residing in Kraków could thus become a competitor of Kraków craftsmen. That thesis could be supported by the fact, that the import of gold was forbidden. Presumably, the bill was issued against the goldbeaters from Wrocław (may be, as the result of Bernart Opticzer s affair). Also, the documents include the regulations prohibiting the sale of gold to servitor-painters, who were not the members of the gild, students and journeymen. (48) The regulation was used to strengthen the position of the painters and goldbeaters gild in Kraków.
The craft of goldbeating in Kraków didn t last for ever. The last goldbeaters worked in Kraków at the end of the 17th century. In the 19th century, Ambroży Grabowski, a historian, who extensively wrote on Kraków s artists and artisans, listed Jurge, a goldsloer de Wien as a member of the extinct craft . The document regarding Jurge dated from 1397. Grabowski only knew that the craft was on demand among painters .
In Wrocław, the documents dated from 1386 include information on goldbeating. Nevertheless, only in 1507, the documents include the names of goldbeaters: Peter Swartze and Hieronymus Brawn. In the documents written in Kraków, there were listed goldbeaters from Wrocław: Bernhart and his journeyman. There is no evidence they had workshops in Wrocław.
Eight goldbeaters, who were listed in the documents written in Kraków, came from Silesia. It is a significant number. We can conclude, that there were strong bonds linking the craftsmen of Małopolska and Silesia. Silesian goldbeaters formed a strong group. We know the names of twenty goldbeaters, who came from Silesia from 1507 to the beginning of the twentieth century. We can read their names in biographical notes by Reiner Sachs, who conducted extensive research on Silesian artists and artisans. In his research, he didn t concentrate on goldbeaters, because he was mostly interested in craftsmen, who co-operated with artists. He listed their names, their profession, and the dates their names were mentioned in documents. The documents from Kraków were written during court trials, therefore they included information on crimes. The documents from Wrocław were written on different occasions, and they included the description of good relations between painters and goldbeaters. Documents from Wrocław often include the information on church ceremonies, such as weddings and christening. The representatives of both professions married and celebrated baptismal ceremonies of their children.
The history of crafts in Wrocław should be further researched. Wrocław used to be an important craft centre. It was on of those unique cities in Europe, where goldbeaters resided and worked in their workshops for a long period of time. Their history continued for six centuries. It definitely is an interesting subject for research.
The list of Wrocław goldbeaters, page&
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